Epidemiology of urolithiasis in the Republic of Tajikistan according to Global Burden of Disease 2021 data

Objective: To assess the epidemiological trends of urolithiasis in the Republic of Tajikistan from 1990 to 2021 using data from the Global Burden of Disease (GBD) 2021 study.

Material and methods: A retrospective descriptive and analytical study was conducted using the open-access database of the Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation (IHME) for “Urolithiasis.” Age-standardized prevalence, incidence, DALY, YLD, and YLL rates were analyzed, along with sex- and age-specific differences, regional comparisons, and associated risk factors.

Results: The age-standardized prevalence increased from 1,205.3 to 1,596.4 per 100,000 population (+32.4%; CAGR +0.87% per year), while the incidence rate rose from 389.2 to 483.7 per 100,000 population (+24.3%). The absolute number of cases increased from 499.8 thousand to 943.1 thousand (+88.7%). Despite the rise in prevalence, the overall DALY rate decreased from 58.4 to 44.8 per 100,000 population (−23.3%), primarily due to a reduction in the mortality component of disease burden. The highest burden was observed among individuals aged 35–64 years. Tajikistan exceeded the global prevalence rate by 25.6% and ranked fourth among the countries of Central Asia. The leading risk factors identified were dehydration and hot climate, obesity, type 2 diabetes mellitus, arterial hypertension, and high sodium intake.

 Conclusion: Urolithiasis constitutes a steadily increasing epidemiological burden in Tajikistan, necessitating region-specific preventive strategies, promotion of adequate hydration, metabolic screening, and annual monitoring of urological morbidity.

1. Romero V., Akpinar H., Assimos D. G. Kidney stones: a global picture of prevalence, incidence, and associated risk factors. Reviews in Urology. 2010;12(2– 3):86–96.

2. Pearle M. S., Goldfarb D. S., Assimos D. G., et al. Medical management of kidney stones: AUA guideline. Journal of Urology. 2014;192(92):316–324. DOI: 10.1016/j.juro.2014.05.006.

3. Global Burden of Disease Collaborative Network. Global Burden of Disease Study 2021 (GBD 2021) Results. Seattle: Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation, 2024. URL: https://ghdx.healthdata.org/gbd-2021.

4. Awedew A. F., Han H., Abbasi-Kangevari M., et al. The global, regional, and national burden of urolithiasis in 204 countries and territories, 1990–2021: a systematic analysis from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2021. EClinicalMedicine. 2024;78(102923). DOI: 10.1016/j.eclinm.2024.102923.

5. Yao W., Xia L., Zhang Y., et al. Global, regional, and national burden of urolithiasis from 1990 to 2021: findings from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2021. PLOS ONE. 2025;20(7):e0327343. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0327343.

6. Brikowski T. H., Lotan Y., Pearle M. S. Climate-related increase in the prevalence of urolithiasis in the United States. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 2008;105(28):9841–9846. DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0709652105.

7. Fakheri R. J., Goldfarb D. S. Ambient temperature as a contributor to kidney stone formation: implications of global warming. Kidney International. 2011;79(11):1178–1185. DOI: 10.1038/ki.2011.76.

8. Skolarikos A., Neisius A., Petřík A., et al. European Association of Urology Guidelines on the urolithiasis: 2025 update. European Urology. 2025; DOI: 10.1016/j.eururo.2025.03.017.